Homework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 20

Homework - Essay ExampleThe employees of a business should be handled with the last-place esteem and terms of their contracts should be met without compromise. These values are absolute, and one must take them seriously enough to dominate human rationale, weakness, ego, or individual faults. close in of failure one looks back at core values for guidance as there is always disagreement about what values should reign overbearing (Dunfee & Nagayasu, 1993).In business, the ones values are the values of the employer, the freedom to choose own ethical values is somewhat limited, but due to corporate scandals, the thought of succeeding(a) the corporations values is a problem (Shaw, 2011). The real test of values and communication in business comes from resulting action. Good ethics and communication principles should be noticed at the top levels of management. In addition to that, a corporate values and ethics initiative should be sold throughout the company and customers. A company sh ould practice its ethics and communication values. Training must be provided to everyone So that its principles are known to everyone in the business (Jennings, 2012). The ethics and communication principles should aspirate to the next generation employees. This is because, the longer it lasts, the more established the principles will be.Conclusively, this article illustrates the importance of business ethics in a business. It gives an insight of how business ethics aids the development of a business and gives the social, political and environmental impact of communication or business ethics in a business

Quantitative Research Design Essay Example for Free

Quantitative Research Design EssayBusiness look into is, arguably, founded on the study of social interactions within the realm of commerce and trade. Until recently, such investigate has seen staunch counter-position of 2 enquiry paradigms quantitative and qualitative, the first deriving from positivism, the last mentioned from interventionism.Indeed, the positions taken by individual interrogationers vary considerably mingled with those like Bryman (1988) who argues for a best of both worlds admittance by suggesting that qualitative and quantitative approaches be combined to those of scholars like Hughes (1997) whom counteracts by stating that such technicist solutions underestimate the politics of legitimacy that are associated with the choice of methods. It is the purpose of this essay to analyze these two search frameworks spotlight the confident(p) aspects as well as the flaws and limits, and highlighting the rise of what is often referred to as the mixed method. All of this will be seen within a blood line contest. Specifically, looking at the authors proposed future research in the realm of commercial negotiations, the arguments presented will reflect this sphere of research. Quantitative and qualitative research are based on different philosophical approaches and methodologies. Quantitative research derives from neo-positivist philosophy which underlines the belief in the presence of an absolute truth as its nubble foundation.This perspective of seeing the world translates in the utilization of research approaches founded on scientific analysis through statistical elaborations and mathematical models. The qualitative approach by contrast, does not highlight the presence of absolute truths but rather truths which are dependent on the particular perspective from which a phenomenon is observed through. This off-course entails that qualitative research is undertaken primarily through the adoption of narrative and logical deduction.These dif ferences appear encapsulated in Best Khans (1989 90-90) statement Quantitative research consists of those studies in which the selective information concerned can be analysed in terms of numbersResearch can also be quantitative, that is, it can describe events, persons and so forth scientifically without the use of numerical dataQuantitative research is more open and responsive to its subject. From a first glance, it appears clear that there are substantial differences between the quantitative and qualitative approaches.Indeed, the way data is obtained, the flexibility in methodological application, the objective and subjective nature of the results obtained, are just a few of the around evident points of contrast. Such contracts has resulted in what has been defined as the paradigm wars which has highlighted and emphasized the incompatibility of the two approaches. For a protracted period of time the quantitative approach has been seen the best form of research for two main sets of reason.Firstly, scientific progress in the last century has projected the notion of the scientific approach as the most apt for explaining the world around us. Secondly, the advent of the information age from the 1980s has seen the ability of elaborating a vast amount of data electronically olibanum further promoting the scientific approach as the best method to adopt for research. Recently however, the divide between the quantitative and qualitative has diminished to the point of many an opposite(prenominal) scholars advocating a debate on the merits of a mixed research methodology utilizing the strengths of both schools of thought.Indeed, the quest for obtaining the best possible research result has seen a reconceptualization of research methods with an integration of the two main philosophies which may be used to converge and convalidate (defined as triangulation), refute data or indeed inform new paths of enquiry. Indeed, research papers today often contain statistical dat a derived from the quantitative methodology which is then presented and formulated in interviews which put the data into the real-world perspective. The integration of the two approaches also makes sense when one starts to look at the commonalities between them.Indeed, both approaches share the following characteristics -Research project design -Identification of information -Information management -Analysis of data -Empirical observations in that location are many other characteristics which instead differentiate quantitative and qualitative research, but a growing group of scholars are now perceiving these differences as positive in that they may reinforce rather than detract from each other. This is often referred to as triangulation and I believe this to be of paramount importance within the mise en scene of business research.Indeed, just like the structured approach, the business sphere also is a mixture and fusion of statistics, and hard financial data in connecter with so fter narrative explanations derived from interviews, and focus groups. Delving even more specifically into my proposed realm of research which centers around the commercial negotiation methodologies adopted in multicultural environments and frontier markets, the integrated approach is, in my opinion, the only approach capable of providing a true and accurate framework for developing such research.This claim is further upheld if one considers the football team ways in which it is possible to combine qualitative and quantitative research methods 1)Logic of triangulation in which the findings from one type of study can be checked against the findings from the other type as above highlighted 2)Facilitation of qualitative research for quantitative research.In this instance the qualitative research informs the quantitative method by providing essential dry land information and a context 3)Facilitation of quantitative research for qualitative research. In this occurrence quantitative rese arch methodology helps to inform the qualitative one by providing a filter and narrowing down the subjects which merit further investigation. 4)Quantitative and qualitative approaches are combined into one thereby furnishing a more in-depth analysis. 5)Structure process.

Classical and Humanist Management Theories Essay Example for Free

Classical and Humanist Management Theories EssayClassical and adult maleist management theories have had a major influenced on fresh theories of leadinghip. Making effective use of appropriate models and theories critically examine whether this is actually the case. Civilization is the product of those who came before us. The evolution of todays modern management thinking has grown and developed since nineteenth nose candy and flourished during twentieth. The twentieth century is just fall apart of revolution management possible action which started from classical theory, ranging to human relation approaches and last flourishing now. Management theory is out coming result of the interdisciplinary efforts of many people. Today the new modern theories of leadership, come up based on classical and humanist management theories, pacify develop and grow as an organisation. Leadership is setting a new path or vision for a cluster that they follow a leader is the spearhead for th at new direction. Management controls or directs people/resources in a group correspond to principles or values that have already been established. The main difference between them comes from what happen if on that point is one without another.If leadership comes without management then sets a sweep or visualization that others follow, without considering too untold how the new direction is going to be achieved. Other people then have to work hard in the trail that is left behind, picking up the pieces and making it work. Management without leadership controls resources to uphold the current situation or confirm things happen according to already-established plans. In Organizing Genius (Addison-Wesley, 1997) Bennis and Patricia Ward Biederman point out those leaders of great(p) teams pick talent on the basis of excellence and ability to work with others.Good leaders ar not afraid to hire people who know more than they do. Jack Welch has said that his biggest accomplishment has been finding great people. A leader should retch responsibilities that involve a persons competence and values. A good leader also reinforces motivation and develops ability through coaching. Leaders know how to throw their people focused. Good leaders can build incredible relationship and can build trust. The interest of leadership come in the early 20, when was considered that great leaders are born not made.The imaginations and theories started developed after then. On the other hand those irreplaceable qualities of good leaders are based on beginning of management. The first management ideas, actually, were record in 3000-4000 B. C, when the pyramids were about to be build. Then the beginning of the modern organisation occurred with the theory called The Founders during the middle of the nineteenth century with the rise of the factory system. After came Pre-Classicism with Robert Owen (1771-1858) and Charles Babbage (1792-1871).And then the twentieth century becomes witness on the most memorable theories called Classical School. The Classical School of Management was plosive consonant of management theory ferment and activity. It was based on improvement of management effectiveness in organisations. It wasnt only about effectiveness in role player please but they also seek to provide needed tool for more effective work and satisfied workers. Within the classical school there are the bureaucratic management, administrative management and scientific management branches.The era of the ideas of Modern theories started with Scientific Management. Frederick Taylor put the beginning of the contemporary and still improving management. He advocated a smorgasbord from the old system of personal management to a new system of scientific management. His theory argues that, each persons credit line should be broken down into elements and a scientific way to perform each element should be determinate. Workers need to be careful selected and properly learn for pa rticular job. The good corporation between management and workers is compulsory.His theory was accepted with many positive fatbacks and negativism as well. But to modern readers, he stands convicted by his own words (1975) in almost all of the mechanic arts, the science which underlies each act of each workman is so great and amounts to so much that the workman who is best suited to actually doing the work is incapable of fully understanding this science, without the guidance and help of those who are working with him or over him, all through lack of education or through insufficient mental capacity.Scientific management come across with significant triumph. Taylor bring a success and to economic standpoints. Productivity met improvement because of his methods. After Scientific management come Human Relations Movement with Elton Mayos experiences in the Hawthorne Works Experiments. Mayos theory met success his impacts were the creation of the industrial engineering. Max Weber Bu reaucracy come after Mayos scientific management. Max Weber believed that civilization was ever-changing to pursue technically best outcomes at the outflow of emotional or humanistic content.Weber did not advocate bureaucracy indeed, his writings show a strong caution for its excesses the more fully realized, the more bureaucracy depersonalizes itself, i. e. , the more completely it succeeds in achieving the exclusion of love, hatred, and every purely personal, especially irrational and incalculable, public opinion from the execution of official tasks While Weber was basically a spectator rather than a stylish, it is pure that his forecasts have come true.His principles of an ideal bureaucracy still circle true today and many of the evils of todays bureaucracies come from their different from those ideal principles. Unfortunately, Weber was also successful in predicting that bureaucracies would have extreme difficulties dealing with person cases. It would have been captivating to realize how Weber would have combined Mayos results into his theories. It is probable that he would have seen the group dynamics as noise in the system, admonition the bureaucracys potential for both efficiency and inhumanity.In 1970s and 1980s, Charismatic Leadership states Effective leaders inspire assistants to obligate themselves to goals by interactive a visualisation, exhibiting magnetised behaviour, and setting an influential individual case, described by Weber as long with bureaucracy. He put the development of leadership based on long-familiar management. Henri Fayol Administration. Fayols boldness theories dovetail into the bureaucratic superstructure described by Weber. He believed that management has five principle roles to control, to organise, to forecast and plan, to command and to coordinate.Fayol developed fourteen principles of administration to go along with managements five main roles. Fayols five principle roles of management are still actively practiced tod ay. increment of management and leadership had continued with Frederick Herzberg (1923-) , Abraham Maslow (1908 1970) and on. Mary Parker Follett supported for a human relations importance equal to a mechanical or operational idiom in management. Her work contrasted with the scientific management of Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915) and evolved by Frank and Lillian Gilbert, which stressed time and motion studies.Apart of all that, in mid-1970th the HerseyBlanchard situational leadership theory was introduced as situational leadership theory. It is a leadership theory conceived by Paul Hersey (professor) and Ken Blanchard (author). The theory argues active leadership is task-relevant and there is no solo best genius of leadership. The theory contained the following qualities as the main qualities of a good leader telling, selling, participating and delegating. According to Hersey and Blanchard (1980) Effective leaders need to be flexible, and must change themselves according to th e situation.They had separated their theory into two fundamental concepts Leadership Style and the individual or groups Maturity level. First described above and succor describes below. The individual or groups Maturity level M1 They absence the exact services vital for the work in pointer and are powerless and reluctant to do or to take duty for this job or task. M2 They are still incapable to take on responsibility for the task being done they are keen to work at the task. M3 They are knowledgeable and talented to do the chore but nonexistence the poise to take on charge.M4 They are undergo at the task, and relaxed with their own skill to do it well. They need to be clever and willing to not only do the task, but to take responsibility for them. In conclusion, management include and put the base on organisations, it is that organisation which makes functions, much(prenominal) as planning, budgeting, evaluating and facilitating. On the other hand leadership is a relationship , an essential part of an organisation. They are response for selecting talents, motivating, coaching and building trust.From Classical human approaches to the modern leader theory there were a big different, the theories will last to change and improve, but on based on the main management theories. It is clear that modern organizations are powerfully influenced by the theories of Taylor, Mayo, Weber and Fayol. Their principles have become such a solid part of modern management that it is hard to believe that these perceptions were unique and new at some opinion in history. The current idea that these impressions are common sense is strong compliment to these creators.

Trafficking Of African Women and Girls Essay Example for Free

Trafficking Of African Women and Girls EssayPart 1 Problem mankind trafficking tarnishes the global vista today, as sla genuinely commitd to decades ago. The women and girls argon vulnerable to exploitation within the country as strong as out of the country. The trafficking of women and girls for prostitution is a openhanded business. The horrific experiences of mi make women and girls, who catch very little filling or control over their lives is a sad tale.Women are made to work in extremely exploitive conditions of charge upual exploitation, forced to regretful practices, high takes of exposure to HIV, threat, strength and even murder. The trafficking of women is th third largest profit making business which runs in the form of organized umbrage. It is just little behind the practices in the field of dose deals and arms deals. gentle trafficking de nones business with human race souls and spirit, which is inhuman. Africa wishings to establish stronger laws aga inst trafficking of women and girls, support by acres, Amnesty world(prenominal), Human Rights and opposite world forums. internationalistic Law under the rules defined by human undecomposeds with the support of United Nations, needs to fun a very proactive role in safeguarding and protecting the victims who boast been subjected to trafficking. The doctrine of International law needs to be more defined to protagonist and support individual within the state rather than the protection of the state al angiotensin-converting enzyme. In the past International Law was nonorious for the ease with which it sanctioned strength against non-western people (Bal Krishnan Rajagopal, 2003.p.11) in the colonial set-up.The advocates of International Law should avoid the previous path of resistance to interfere in the issues related to interior(prenominal) events and violence. Rather it should actively get involved to address such(prenominal)(prenominal) issues and help the government and the local bodies take effective tramples to control such problem. The law enforcement authorities need to put together an effective plan to ensure safety and forced exploitation. The cross border laws need to get tighter so that loopholes may not be wrongfully used by people to migrate crosswise borders il judicially for bring out prospects and then being exploited to prostitution and forced labor.The universal description of trafficking as formulated by Human Rights can be briefed in this summary and statement. It defines trafficking in persons as the employment, carrying, transfer, possession or delivery of persons, by the use of disincentive or compulsion in which some kind of kidnapping, cheating, deceit, oppression and exploitation is used. It further states that all ex agitate (giving or receiving) of expenses in the form of honorarium or profit to induce a person to give consent in the situation when a person is having control over the other person, for the deceptive purpose of exploitation ( even if the person has given consent) comes under the practice of trafficking.Exploitation has been further expanded to define exploitation for the purpose of prostitution which agency informal exploitation in various models. It also includes forced labor of services, slavery or practices similar to slavery in some form of servitude. This comment has been formulated as the draft of the external definition of trafficking so that there is universal understanding with spend guidelines which can help identify the problem of trafficking in different regions and different communities. This can help prevent, stop and punish the trafficking persons especially women and children, supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime. (Raymond and Hughes, 2001)The international recognition of a rough-cut definition would help come to uniform legal action taken against the perpetrators so that effective law and enforcement can be execu ted. most of the key questions which have been addressed are who are trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation whether it is across borders or within countries, with or without their consent, through force, fraud, deception or abuse of the victim who is vulnerable. Human trafficking is what leads to prostitution, so whatsoever measures taken to make anti-trafficking policies should take into consideration the issue of organized prostitution and domestic trafficking. Human Rights legislation against trafficking must expend to the international as well as domestic women across the platform. (Raymond and Hughes, 2001)Human trafficking is one of the most inhuman and harsh crimes which give rise to innumerable victims, by and large young women and girls, who are forced into prostitution or forced labor. They have to live their everyday life under threat, violence and captivity with no foretaste and no direction as to where there life will lead. This is a life worst than an an imal. most(prenominal) of the exploiters are men or sometimes women who have been through such abuse themselves. Mostly this results from a rosy dream to have a better life, a financial burden, acute poverty and abuse. Human trafficking is mostly an underground activity involved in providing sexual services to legitimate clubs, brothels and agencies. The most unique aspect of this type of trade is that in this elusion a human body is traded instead of commodity. (2006)Part 2 International LawMigration It is very urgent to recognize that women rights should be applied universally to grant women equality, security, liberty, integrity and dignity uniform all other deserving human beings. These rights and principles are enshrined in international instruments, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International cartel on Civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention against whirl and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1993). This resolution will strengthen the process to address that violence against women is an obstacle in achieving equality, development and peace, so serious strategies need to be implemented to fight violence and abuse and exploitation against women.Most of the women who entered United States came on tourist visas and overstayed their visas. sometimes they would use fraudulent travel documents. Some of the legal means by which they entered United States were on spousal visas, student visa, and work permit and on sublime occasion with an immigration green card.These variety of different ways in which a person can enter another country, are major loopholes which are used by the traffickers to be successful in their mission. It requires more strict check on the part of the law enforcement and immigration officials. The success of the trafficker is freque ntly supported by the network of the local legitimate businesses such as hotels, bars, travel agencies which flourish as the result pf co work and degeneration of the immigration and law enforcement agents widely distributed (Raymond and Hughes, 2001).Trafficking flourishes for the major part because the victims want to migrate to a feature country other than their own for innumerable reasons. This requires cooperation and bully deal of border crossing from one country to another. It is greatly affected by the demand and the supply, as determined by the current wave. The demand and the supply aspect of human commodity has not always been the same. Over last twenty years four waves have been seen to influence the migrants heading to Europe. The head start wave was characterized by women from Far East, especially from the Philippines and Thailand, this was directly followed by the second wave of women originating from Latin America, the Dominican Republic and Colombia, the third wave consisted of women from Africa, and in particular Ghana and Nigeria followed in nineties by women from Ukraine and Moldova. (2006).Most of the trafficking groups have networks which are of a multinational and multi-ethnical nature this makes the cross-border operation an easy route for vast majority of trafficking cases. Most of the people who are involved in this discreet business and perpetrate trafficking are restricted to the confines of the geographical boundaries of the country or the countries where the victims are recruited, the countries where they are transported and finally the countries where they are ultimately and finally exploited. Very few traffickers have moved up to the level of international scale of operation and network, where they recruit and transport to different countries. Some of the names which harvest time up significantly in this field are the Albanian traffickers, the Nigerian traffickers and the Turkish traffickers (2006)The general studies in organized crime reveal that women are not very involved in the crime activities, but in the world of human trafficking which is dominated by male, women play the roles of the accomplices in three different ways they are the recruiters, sometimes former victim becomes offenders and in case of Nigerian groups women play very important role in trafficking as a culturally embedded involvement.The strategy used by the trafficking organizations is to deploy women as the recruiter to help them get the first sign contact, which can further be manipulated to overcome the initial suspicion of the victim. Thus women play the safe role to entice, comfort and then exploit the other women. Several reports mention that women are used as a trap by showing off their wealth and brotherly status, to get the younger women to aspire and aim for the same glitter and shine, leading to the path of vileness and dungeon.In Nigeria these women perpetrators play a very important role and are referred to as Madame. These Madames are former victims and they work as intermediary mingled with the prostitutes and the traffickers. Nigeria plays a very significant role in the organized trafficking specially in the European countries. The study done by the Nigerian Ploice Force and the Women Trafficking and babe Labor Eradication Foundation (WOTCLEF) has come up with the estimate that the number of women who are trafficked out of the country shows sharp increase in the numbers from 1126 in 1999 to 5000 in the year 2001. Nigerian women constitute to about 80% of the workers in the sex industry of Italy. Some of the other European countries which are common destinations for these women are Spain, Netherlands, Ger more, Belgium, Austria and the United Kingdom.The destinations vary in their acceptance and legal privileges. Italy is the only European country where majority of legally resident Nigerians are women. (2006). There is a clear connection between the trafficking and its roots in Nigeri a, this is directly related to high level of corruption in both public and private sectors. The trafficking is a self propelling vicious cycle, which moves on from victims becoming trafficker.It always begins with a pact, which keeps on increasing with penalties and punishments, and the best option to clear the debt is to continue to work for freedom and finally become a Madame. In Nigeria traffickers do not always have to recruit victims many times victims come to them. It is a very open trafficking market, where many times girls are put under pressure by the family to get involved with trafficking. . In Nigeria the classy lady is called the Italo women who return to Nigeria after a suspender of years of prostitution in Italy. (2006).International Law needs to play a dynamic role in the internal momentum to curb corruption and support international institutions to take active role in creating sentience and safeguarding the rights of its women and girls. There are several push a nd pull factor of economic, political and social nature which encourages the victim, to fall prey to the trafficker. The victims are vulnerable and dependent on the trafficker for they are involved in a business which is illegal and ill-reputed. It is a very complex regulation issue for the law enforcement authorities to control and regulate the complex nature of human trafficking. The migrant women and girls have very express mail choice or control over their lives. In this new era of globalization, these women and girls are the new slaves of the contemporary era.The attractiveness of this industry on the international level as an organized crime network is estimated at $7 billion USD. The monetary return keeps the practice alive and creeping at a very high rate. A trafficker can buy a girl in China for $20/- to $30/- USD and can sell her in San Francisco for $3000/- USD. Monzini, Paola (2005). Human trafficking, the modern euphemism for slavery, is a major problem in Africa. The trafficking in women and girls is now considered the third largest source of profit for organized crime, behind only drugs and arms. This situation has resulted in a very high number of women who are forced to compete for work in the conditions of excessive social exploitation and are forced to risky practices which ultimately leads to very high levels of HIV, brutality and slaughter. The practices which are considered standard in this kind of marketplace are often very harsh and extremely brutal. It is like slow, dark and dreadful death of the body and the soul (Monzini, Paola (2005).The term declaration of violence against women implies any act of gender base violence which causes or is probably to cause any kind of physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to the women. These acts are very well defined as acts of intimidation and force or illogical withdrawal of the freedom in the public or the private life. Women like men are allowed to have pleasure and bliss just like men. They also need the security of all human rights and fundamental freedoms which are considered necessary for good living. They need for their harvesting and development freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field. They need the sanction of the same rights as the right to life, equality, liberty and security as an individual.They also need the right of equal protection under the law, freedom from all forms of discrimination, the right to seek the best physical and mental health, right to work in just and humane conditions. They specially need the right to be protected against torture or cruelty, where inhuman and degrading treatment and punishment is practiced. The state has the responsibility to attack such practices of violence against women and should restrict any such customs, traditions and religious practices which enforce such inhuman practices. State should immediately and forcefully intervene in curbing any such practices by intr oducing a sound policy which enacts without delay to eliminate violence against women.The different branches and the specialized agencies of the United Nations within their respective fields of operation should acknowledge the recognition of the rights and principles which has been mentioned and acknowledged within the Declaration. The Declaration is like the flashlight highlighting the misery of the women and showing them the course of action which could save them from this peril. It gives the essential guidelines for a contendeness and self recovery (1993).Part 3 Viable Change Poverty, social disruption and family pressures and even natural disasters sow the seeds for the practice, while armed conflict, corrupt governments and a universal demand for cheap labor help reap the crops of new victims. Africa needs to establish stronger laws against the trafficking of women and children on and from the continent as well as better child-labor laws, a former U.S. ambassador to Madagascar told members of the newly reconstituted Africa, Global Human Rights, and International Operations. One should investigation into the causes and forms of violence against women, looking at the relationship between poverty, militarization and discrimination.. Amnesty International shows how women have led campaigns against all forms of violence and have achieved dramatic changes in laws, policies and practices. This is an inhuman condition which cannot be allowed to emerge, as it tarnishes the color of human race and civilized society.There is a complex push and pull factors which determine the nature of trafficking and the vicious cycle which it creates. It is a complex mixture of fate and the reasons why people want to leave their country to migrate to another country with dreams of better and brighter future. Some of the key factors which push the victim to take such a drastic step can be categorized as socio-economic push factor which is a lure to amore wealthier country for esc ape from poverty and believe for better or wealthier life style. Sometimes the decision to migrate is backed by desire to support the family financially and dream to ensure better future for the children. Some just want to have high social status with modern and emancipated lifestyle. In some societies and cultures women are not given the freedom to growth and good life.These cultural factors can push a woman to leave their woman-unfriendly atmosphere where she does not have the same chance as men to tuition and career. Political circumstances, turmoil and civic unrest can also be factors which may motivate a woman to take refuge to some other country where difficulty and threat to life would be less. Some of the other factors which might play a significant role in migration could be alcoholism, drug addiction, criminality, maltreatment in the social proximity of a person. These factors lead to unemployment and poverty, which leads to migration and trafficking.Some of the pull fa ctors are opportunities for better life and future, with employment and lack of poverty. The prospect of brighter and wealthier lifestyle in the west is a great lure. The demand for prostitutes and the demand for services, in wide variety of areas can be a temptation for taking the step to leave the security of the country to migrate in another country. (2006).A very serious concern for national and international institutions should be the health cause of sex trafficking and prostitution. The investigation in medical and social sciences indicate rates of high incidence of HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in genuine populations of women in prostitution. The physical and emotional effects and aftereffects of trafficking and prostitution on women is also a great concern for health care providers and social service providers. A considerable number of women suffer from various health problems related to violence and sexual exploitation. The nature of their injuries i s similar to those of women who are battered, raped and sexually assaulted. Their situation is austere and their plight is miserable.The fundamental source of trafficking is the lack of awareness, insufficient support, lack of education, vulnerability of women as a gender. On an international scene explosion of organized crime and easy access to transportation of Humans women and girls across border with a promise for better and brighter picture. The dependant status of this gender further encourages trapped into such practices, even without conscious will.The national consciousness, international legal support and geographic migration laws have to join hands to bring about effective change in the depressing condition of women and girls in Africa. The human rights should play a forceful role backed by powerful countries to support in avail and legislation with severe penalties for the offenders. This is an inhuman condition which cannot be allowed to emerge, as it tarnishes the co lor of human race and civilized society. Countries, organization and people should unite to fight against and assure the grim condition emerging on the African soil. One should tap into the greatest resource in Africa Women and give them a bright and promising future.Rajgopal, offers great insight into this field with his research experience in South and Southeast Asia, South Africa and Brazil. His current investigation into four areas of research new democratic and legal strategies for making operational the socio-economic rights, especially rights to water, food, land, housing, and environment in India, South Africa and Brazil the impact of globalization and decentralization on protection of human rights the accountability of international organizations and corporate compliance with human rights law. He helped establish first human-rights field office in CambodiaHelped establish the first human-rights field office of the United Nations in the mid-1990s and has been a consultant to several international organizations and NGOs on development-related human rights and legal issues. Member of the Asia Advisory Board of Human Rights Watch, the Executive Council of the American Society of International Law and the International Advisory Board of the Robert Kennedy Memorial Center for Human Rights.The idea of International Human Rights is western in origin rather non-western societies did not have a conception of human rights. Now that the world has become so global the countries should unite to fight this war of exploitation and slavery grotesquely practiced by the traffickers hiding under the mask of businesses, law enforcement and predators. Jack Donnelly puts it. human rights represent a distinctive set of social practices, tied to particular notions of human dignity, that initially arose in the modern west in response to the social and political changes produced by modern states and modern capitalist market economies. (Bal Krishnan Rajagopal,2003, p.175)Inter national Law should find a way to penetrate and resist the violence and torture of any kind inflicted on any woman and girl, in any country, by implementing forceful laws which issue severe penalties, restrict illegal migration and punish the organized trafficking institution. The government should protect the victim, raise their realistic awareness and provide safer domestic environment. The recognition of the rights and the penalties for the offenders can ensure the safety of these victims, who are waiting to be saved from the tyranny of physical torture, psychological degradation and social elimination. They deserve a normal human life like every other individual and they should be guaranteed this without condition.Annotated Bibliography1. Akintunde, Dorcas Olu Labeodan Helen (2002) WOMEN AND THE CULTURE OF VIOLENCE IN TRADITIONAL AFRICA. Nigeria, Sefer Books Ltd.This is a collection of essays first presented at the Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians on February 5, 20 02.These papers look at a variety of issues concerned with womens rights in Africa.The authors describe the realities of equal rights policies, sex and power, cultural roots of insecurity.2. Amnesty International (2004) ITS IN OUR HANDS Stop Violence Against Women. United Kingdom Amnesty International.This is an investigation into the causes and forms of violence against women, looking at the relationship between poverty, militarization and discrimination.Amnesty International shows how women have led campaigns against all forms of violence and have achieved dramatic changes in laws, policies and practices.3. Bal Krishnan Rajagopal.( 2003) International Law from beneath Development, Social Movements and Third arena Resistance. United States, Cambridge University Press.The emergence of transnational social movements as major actors in international politics as witnessed in Seattle in 1999 and elsewhere has sent shockwaves through the international system. Many questions have ari sen about the legitimacy, coherence and efficiency of the international order in the light of the challenges posed by social movements.This ground-breaking book offers a fundamental critique of twentieth-century international law from the perspective of Third World social movements the first ever to do so. It examines in detail the growth of two key components of modern international law international institutions and human rights in the context of changing historical patterns of Third World resistance.Using a historical and interdisciplinary approach, Rajagopal presents compelling evidence challenging current debates on the evolution of norms and institutions, the meaning and nature of the Third World, as well as the political economy of its involvement in the international system.4. Commonwealth Secretariat (2003) REPORT OF THE EXPERT GROUP ON STRATEGIES FOR COMBATING THE TRAFFICKING OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN. United Kingdom Commonwealth Secretariat.The trafficking in women and gir ls is now considered the third largest source of profit for organized crime, behind only drugs and arms.This concise report describes the political and social background to the trade across the Commonwealth and looks at prevention strategies and assistance to victims. Bib5. Hallam, Rebecca (1994) CRIMES WITHOUT PUNISHMENT Sexual Harassment and violence Against Female Students in Schools and Universities in Africa. United kingdomAfrican Rights.This is a discussion paper addressing the widespread and persistent problem of sexual harassment and violence against women and girls in educational institutions in Africa.The paper also deals with wider problems of juvenile pregnancy and lack of sex education in schools, and the specific problem of rape by forces of the state, such as soldiers and policemen.6. Human Rights Watch (2002) THE WAR at heart THE WAR Sexual Violence against Women and Girls in Eastern Congo.USA Africa Watch/ Human RightsForces on all sides in the Congo conflict have committed war crimes against women and girls, Human Rights Watch said in a new 114-page report.The report documents the frequent and sometimes systematic use of rape and other forms of sexual violence in the Rwandan-occupied areas of eastern Congo.7. Monzini, Paola (2005) SEX TRAFFIC Prostitution, Crime, and Exploitation.United kingdom Zed Books.The trafficking of women and girls for prostitution is big business. This book focuses on the experiences of migrant women and girls who have very little choice or control over their lives.Women are forced to compete for work in conditions of extreme sexual exploitation, often being exposed to risky sexual practices, high levels of HIV, violence and murder.This book examines the techniques of recruitment, methods of transportation, and forms of exploitation abroad, and focuses on womens own experiences of migration. It explains the mechanisms of supply and demand and assesses attempts at controlling trafficking and strategies for resistance and change.8. Oguli Oumo, Margaret Molokomme, Imelda M. Gwaba, Monde M. Mogegeh, Valencia K.D (2002) PROMOTING AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO COMBAT gender BASED VIOLENCE A training manual. United Kingdom Commonwealth SecretariatThis is a manual promoting an integrating approach to combat gender based violence with governments, non governmental organizations, private sector and international organizations working together.It includes instructional material and case studies for training trainers, middle level professionals, development workers and extension agents9. (20 celestial latitude 1993). Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women. Retrieved promenade 29, 2007, from Office Of The United Nations High Commissioner For Human Rights Web site www.ohchr.org/english/law/eliminationvaw.htm(1993)10. Raymond and Hughes, Janice G. and Donna M. (March 2001). SEX TRAFFICKING OF WOMEN. Retrieved March 29, 2007, from Coalition Against Trafficking in Women Web site action.web.ca/ home/catw/attach/sex_traff_us.pdf(Raymond and Hughes, 2001)11. (2006). TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS. Retrieved March 29, 2007, from Assesing Organized Crime Web site www.assessingorganisedcrime.net/publications/AOC-DLV17-vR3.pdf

Quantitative investigation of immunoglobulins

Quantitative investigation of immune serum globulins admission-Quantitative investigation of Immunoglobulins is the basis of the standard laboratory technique indoors the field of clinical immunology. Immunoglobulins raise be mensurable quantitatively through with(predicate) the use of nephelometry, such(prenominal) measurements ar vital in the instance of a suspected immunodeficiency indoors a patient.For this reason the test is true and rapidly measures the amounts of IgM, immunoglobulin G and IgA proteins at bottom the bloodline of the patient and from such work if a number of conditions or disorders be present. The role of such antibodies is within fighting infections and allergies as part of the normal immune response.A disease (or disorder) rump be identified through the measurement of such protein levels. IgM for modeling whoremonger appear during an initial infection and then reappear to a lesser extent upon indirect exposure. (Weir, 1978)Nephelometry is usua lly per organise by drawing blood from a vein on the back of the hand or if not come-at-able the in side of an elbow. The needle draws the blood into an airtight vial or tube given up to it. Removal of the needle is fol blueed by sterilisation and covering of the incision site. (Stanley, 2002)Practical Schedule- Nephelometry is an automated system that measures antigen or antibody solution in very especial(a) compactnesss by the amount of light scatter. The principle is that when the light comes into contact with the solution it al base for not be absorbed save scatter away from the main mail and c beful at angles between 0-90 from a predefined curve. The subsequent amounts be proportionate to that of the concentration of molecules. As well as dilute solutions there also necessitate to be a linear correlation between molecules formed and optical density. For this reason several dilutions measurements argon recorded and also during the formation of molecules. This process i s cognize as rate nephelometry.When considering this technique it is vital that the relative amount of antigen and antibody must be small enough so that precipitation does not occur but also large enough to allow the formulation of small immune complexes. Immunoprecipitation burdens are achieved through the use of monoclonal antibodies (MCAs) allowing epitopes to react with the antiserum and MCAs forming immune precipitates with their antigens. Results- Normal importsIgG 560 to 1800 mg/dL IgM 45 to 250 mg/dL IgA 100 to 400 mg/dL Evaluation- the automated nature of this technique bring abouter that it is both fast accurate with outcomes available within 1-2 hours. Its wide spread use is mainly belt down to this pointor but its simplicity and low prototype size and volumes also make it a valued technique with the clinical laboratory setting. (Diamandis et al1996).It is however, as with nearly techniques not without its draw backs. The usual precautions should be interpreted as when taking any blood standard. Although rare excessive bleeding, fainting and infection should all be considered as risk factors when taking samples. (Drexel, 14/06/08)The presence of sprinkle particles and former(a) debris butt end be cause for distorted readings and lead to higher values than expected. This contribute be addressed through centrifugation of the specimen (Diamandis et al1996). In addition to this air bubbles can cause kindred effects on results. To ensure readings are as accurate as possible, the speciality should be at optimal level, as set on the nephelometer and controls should be carried out wherever it is apply. (Palmer, 1992) Although this order does determine the amount of severally immunoglobulin it does not consume the ability to signalise antibodies.Another method that can be employ to quantitatively investigate Immunoglobulins in serum, saliva, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), amniotic fluid, and gastrointestinal juice is Radial Immunodiffusio n (Chapel et al1999). This technique allows for the adding of a sample to a well in a colloidal gel made up of the antibody specific for the substance being tested for. This then moves through the gel leading to the formation of a visible precipitate around the optimum concentration sample well.The interpretation of such results however is subjective and results are delayed as the process takes several days and as such nephelometry is recommended for greater precision, automation, objectivity and speed and is suitable for large throughput tests (Keogan et al 2006). It is also large(p) to quantitatively analyse the results using very small samples and a calibration curve. (Chapel et al., 2006). 2. Quantitative Other Serum Proteins-Radial ImmunodiffusionIntroductionRadial Immunodiffusion acts upon the antigen- antibody complex precipitation reaction. It is apply within the field of neurology and oncology. This involves passive diffusion of immunoreactants through an agar matrix. An electrical current is not required for such process to occur as is reliant upon the physiochemical relationships. Practical ScheduleRadial Immunodiffusion works via the mixing of antiserum with agar and pouring it on a glass plate to allow it to solidify. The antiserum must be specific for the class of immunoglobulin that is being measured for the technique. The agar mixture is then punctured and the subsequent holes filled using the sera from the test samples. Diffusion of the Immunoglobulins radially causes the formation of precipitate at the point which the number of antibody and antigen are identical. As with previous techniques a calibration curve us used that has been made up from cognise set of solution to determine the amount of Immunoglobulins present within the sample. EvaluationAccuracy and specificity is the most potent threat to validly of this technique. The fundamental worry is the lack of sensitivity and is not a rapid technique with results taking over 48 hours ow ing to reaction times. (Chapel, 2002) Whilst it does provide use in the finding of serum proteins quantitatively there are an array of factors that can lead to unreliable results. Temperature of the gel and external environment, molecular size, gel viscosity, reactant concentration and buffer pH highlights a few of the factors that will affect the rate of diffusion but is not exhaustive. (Nakamura et al, 1979)3. Quantitative other Serum proteinsCollection of serumCollect blood in a glass container and allow it to clot at means temperature for an hour.Once the clot has formed loosen the walls of the container to aid retraction.Transfer to 4 degrees and abdicate overnight if necessaryCollect the expressed serum and centrifuge at 150g for 5 minutes to sediment the erythrocytes, and then at 350g for 15 minutes.Transfer the stalk coloured serum to suitable containers and heat at 56 degrees for 30 minutes to destroy the heat labile components of complement. (Hay et al., 2002) soft Imm unoglobulinsIntroduction-The stages of diagnosis, determination of immunity and the efficacy of an case-by-case to many microbial infections, are based upon immunological tests in serum. When blood clots the fluid that remains is cognise as serum and as such it is rich in Immunoglobulins. Serum however is not easily accessible so other sample sources can be used. The presence of specific Immunoglobulins in urine, saliva and cerebrospinal fluid mean that such bodily fluids, inclusive of others such as semen, can be used instead. Anatomically the most quick available and less intrusive however, as with other bodily fluids, contain low concentrations of IgM and IgG. Semen is abundant with these Immunoglobulins and as such may be perceived as being the most accurate and reliable in any such investigations (PCT, 1987) In Serum- ImmunoelectrophresisIntroduction-Serum Protein Electrophoresis is a qualitative investigation carried out to test for the presence of monoclonal bands (parapr oteins). (Chapel et al., 2002) During electrophoresis, discrete monoclonal bands may appear (M bands). Further investigation is needed in order to determine the immunoglobulin heavy and/ or light scopes through immunofixation. This is important when trying to distinguish what sort of Immunoglobulins are present. Determination is achieved through Immunoprecipitation in a gel with anti- sera that is specific for heavy and light chains of the immunoglobulin.Immunoelectrophresis works by separating sera in agarose gel by electrophoresis. Troughs that are parallel to the unfixed electrophoretic strips hurt specific anti- sera added to them leading to the formulation of precipitin arcs that are clearly visible owing to the process of diffusion.Immunofixation however tends to be more comm nevertheless used and as such will be more focused upon within the portfolio. This technique is jetly used in the diagnosis of conditions such as osteoporosis.In the abnormal absence of a heavy chain a nd an abnormal reaction occurring with the ant- sera that are specific for light chains discrete (M) bands are present. It is also a highlight to the possibility of an immunoglobulin D or IgE paraproteins although is far less common.If an abnormal reaction occurs with only the heavy chain anti sera it is indicative of a rare heavy chain disorder. It is possibly to quantify individual M bands with the use of a densitometer. This acts by measuring the intensity of the stain taken up by each individual band and as such is the only method at present to be of use in the measurement of paraproteins concentration (Chapel et al1999).Practical Schedule taken from Clinical Immunology. (Chapel et al., 2002)Immunoelectrophoresis- generate serum samples to an electrophoresis gel at the cathode end alongside a normal serum sample as a control. Apply an electric current for 45 minutes and remove the gel. Use a stain to visualize the bands.Immunofixation-specific antisera to IgG, IgA, IgM and ka ppa and lambda light chains are then employ to the electrophoresed samples by soaking strips of cellphoneulose acetate in the individual antisera and laying them on the electrophoresis gel. This is then incubated for 2 hours and all the un-fixed proteins are washed off expiration the precipate. Individual monoclonal bands can be quantitatively measured by a densitometer.ResultsThe dark areas indicate monoclonal bands. The picture above channelizes a despotic result for the lambda chain. The presence of monoclonal bands can indicate sixfold myelomas or osteoporosis.In this example, the M band is identified as IgG of kappa type. Concentration of the M band is determined using a densitometric trace, as demonstrated in the second image.Evaluation- The presence of air bubbles will distort the formation of protein bands and as such the gel must be degassed. The method detailed above is much quicker and far more sensitive than the singular use of immunoelectrophresis. Its cheapness a nd low hazard level mean it is a desirable technique in the detection of Immunoglobulins within serum. (Zola et al. 1999)Qualitative Immunoglobulins in Urine- Electrophoresis and ImmunofixationNormal physiology of the kidney dictates that protein is usually excreted within the urine in minimal amounts. Higher levels can lead to the suspicion of multiple myeloma that can lead to irrapairable damage to the kidneys as nephritic cells are non exchangeable with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia and hypogammaglobulninaemia being suspects. Kidney disorders such as IgA nephropathy may also be a causation of such symptoms. All military man produced excessive amounts of vindicate polyclonal light chains in accompaniment to normal immunoglobulin synthesis with these being secreted into the urine and are detectable in low amounts in all samples (Thompson, 1981). If the normal range of this is exceeded however it is indicative of renal damage. This method is often used in order to detect these sm all free monoclonal light chains that are also called Bence- Jones Proteins owing to the fact that normal parameters of testing fail to pick them up. (Chapel, 2005). Bence- Jones Proteins are distinguishable by the fact they possess unusual thermal properties, for example they precipitate out of the urine solution at 56 degrees and redissolve upon further heating. (Thompson, 1978)Practical ScheduleDetermine concentration by ultrafiltration, absorption of water, or by freeze-drying. There are several commercially available kits for determining the concentration of urine. This involves concentrating the urine, then using electrophoresis to determine the presence of monoclonal bands. past using immunofixation to establish what the monoclonal band is made of. (Chapel et al., 2006)Results Serum protein samples from patients with light chain multiple myeloma and one normal result on the far left.The M protein is seen as a dark dense band localised on the strip, this picture shows the dif ferent bands that can be detected. white Decreased with malnutrition and malabsorption, pregnancy, kidney disease (especially nephrotic syndrome), coloured disease, inflammatory conditions, and protein-losing syndromes Increased with dehydrationAlpha1 globulin Decreased in congenital emphysaema (a1-antitrypsin deficiency, a rare genetic disease) or severe liver disease Increased in acute or chronic inflammatory diseasesAlpha2 globulin Decreased with hyperthyroidism or severe liver disease, haemolysis (red blood cell breakage) Increased with kidney disease (nephrotic syndrome), acute or chronic inflammatory diseaseBeta globulin Decreased with malnutrition, cirrhosis Increased with hypercholesterolaemia, iron deficiency anaemia, some cases of multiple myeloma or MGUSGamma globulin Decreased variety of genetic immune disorders, and in secondary immune deficiency Increased Polyclonal chronic inflammatory disease, rheumatoid arthritis, general lupus erythematosus, cirrhosis, chronic li ver disease, acute and chronic infection, recent immunization. Monoclonal Waldenstroms macroglobulinaemia, multiple myeloma, monoclonal gammopathies of undetermined significance. (MGUS)Table from lab tests UK online.Evaluation-this method allows the determination of the different proteins in the urine and can be vital in allowing the doctor to work out a diagnosis of the condition. It is relatively simple and reliable however the results can only be read by a skilled worker and owing to its various steps is not as rapid as desired. Results show that different diagnoses are reached depending on which Immunoglobulins are increased in the urine, as indicated in the table above.Qualitative Immunoglobulins in Cerebrospinal Fluid- immunoperoxidase and isoelectric focusingThis test allows for the distinction between IgG and albumin concentrations. This relationship is important to differentiated as IgG is synthesised by lymphocytes within the brain where as albumin is not and is known as the CSF IgG Index that is indicative of this fact as demonstrates how much IgG within the CSF has been synthesised. (Chapel et al2006). Unlike the before mentioned serum where single discrete (M) bands where formed the locally synthesised IgG is often oligoclonal and subsequently cannot be detected by means of electrophoresis of CSF as isnt concentrated. (Roitt et al.. 2002)The only available method for the detection of oligoclonal bands are isoelectric focusing and immunofixation with enzyme label antiserum. Investigation and diagnosis of demyelinating disorders such as Multiple Sclerosis is carried out using such tests. (Richard et al 2002)Practical Schedule- Isoelectric focusing and immunofixation with enzyme labelled antiserums. This involves separating the proteins within a pH gradient and transferring them to nitrocellulose membranes that have previously been immunofixed with IgG antiserum to show the specific bands. This can be compared with controls to determine the new ban ds. (Richard et al., 2002)Results A positive result is where the oligoclonal IgG bands are not found in serums, but, in Cerebrospinal Fluid. These are shown as dense dark bands on the results below. 5-10% of CSF protein tends to be IgG. If a patient has disseminated sclerosis or sub-acute sclerosing panencephalitis then the proportion of IgG in CSF is over 12%.EvaluationThis is a relatively modernised method and is approved for use within a clinical setting. The older isoelectric focusing is no longer recommended as it possesses a higher degree of specific (95%) and sensitivity. In addition it is favourable as only requires low concentrations of serum samples and results are available within 2 hours and mostly work on an automated level. (Richard et al.. 2002)Qualitative Immunoglobulins in Saliva- Complement- componentsIntroduction Complement components are large molecular weight proteins. Activation of these usually results in proteolytic cleavage of the molecule into fragments. (T hompson, 1978) Western blotting is used in combination with gel electrophoresis and ELISA and RIAs are used when a social unit saliva sample is collected or when there are saliva fractions Fabian et al., 2007.Practical Schedule-Gel filtration is carried out on Sephadex G-200. Serum samples of 1.5ml were applied to and 2.5cm diameter, 40 cm length column containing the Sephadex. This is equilibriated with a buffer containing 0.14M NaCl, 0.006M NaH2PO4 and 0.035M Na2HPO at a pH value of 7.3. Fractions of 2.5ml each are collected at a flow rate of 30ml per hour and the protein content of this effluent is measured as UV transmission at 280m in an absorbiometer.Results the results are determined by using these filtrated samples and single radial diffusion, a calibration curve is needed to determine amounts. This is created by using standard solutions. (Rose et al., 1997)Evaluation Occur in large amounts in serum can be measured accurately precipitin reaction in gel. sight them as antig ens however means it cannot be identified as to whether they are active or not.Collecting specimens for complement assays can be difficult as you are to avoid inducing the complement pathway. Care should be taken to avoid false results caused by this when trying to determine the activation that was caused in vivo. champion radial diffusion can be used to determine quantitatively. This test is rapid reliable and easy to carry out and determine results of. (Rose et al., 1997)Complement-breakdown productsComplement-C3- Crossed immunoelectrophoresisIntroductionThe complement system comprises of proteins (which may be membrane bound or present in plasma) that play an important role is host defences Stanley, 2002. The system is pertain in destroying certain bacteria and viruses, and is also involved in initiating inflammatory response. Complement is also important for opsonisation of foreign materials, facilitation of phagocytosis by leukocytes, and direct cytotoxic reactions Gaspari Ty ring, 2008. A determinant of the amount of C3 is crossed immunoelectrophresis and has the advantage of differentiating between inactive and active forms of C3. Deficiencies in C3 can lead to systemic infections including sepsis meningitis, pneumococcal and influenza infections. methodFirst dimensionPrepare a 2% agarose solution in the barbitone buffer containing EDTA (ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid)Pour 3 ml of agarose solution onto the microscope slide and let set.Cut a 1mm well in the slide removing the agarose and filling with the serum sample for the C3 quantification.Apply a potential difference of approx. 150v for 2 hours.Cut a 5 mm wide longitudinal strip containing the sample.Second dimensionPrepare 12ml of an anti-C3 solution in 2% agarose solution at 56 degrees. deposit the agarose strip at one end of the square glass plate and cover the whole slide with the agarose containing the anti-C3.Place the plate in the electrophoresis tank car making sure it is the right way and electrophorese overnight.Wash and stain the precipitin arcs.This method works by using the electric field to separate the complement components.ResultsEvaluation- as with many of the before mentioned techniques it requires a skilled technician in order to carry out such a test and can edge on the side of time consuming owing to its numerous steps and incubation periods set out in the methodology. (Hay et al.. 2002) Complement- nephritic factorComplement-nephritic factorIntroduction nephritic factor is an autoantibody to activated C3, it breaks down C3 in the alternate pathway by cleaving it into two fragments that are inactive forms (C3d and C3c) of the normal version of C3b. It binds and stabilises the alternative pathway C3 convertase (that is present in all sera) in the presence and absence of serum proteins. The alternative pathway C3 convertase put offs inhibitors from acting on and destroying C3 convertase.. The autoantibody (the C3 nephritic factor) reacts in the complem ent system not by blocking the enzyme active site but instead, block the site where inhibitors limit the action of and destroy the enzyme. analyses to determine the C3 nephritic factor are performed in patients that possess a C3 concentration that is below normal and is unexplained, with normal C4 levels SAS Centre, 2009. This is because the presence of the C3 nephritic factor in a patient means that C3 is continuously broken down and depleted. Low levels C3 can be associated with kidney disorders or recurrent infections. (Chapel et al., 2006)Practical Schedule-The practical schedule is similar to the before mentioned. It used samples with the suspected nephritic factor and other normal serum samples. They are incubated together and if the nephritic factor is present, it breaks down the C3 in the normal sample. (Chapel et al., 2006)Results-As expected from the similarity in methodology the results are similar to the detection of C3 in the picture above using crossed immunoelectroph oesis. If only inactive forms are present owing to inactivation from nephritic factor than the result is deemed positive. A negative result is when there is no nephritic meaning that none of the C3 has been inactivated.Evaluation-This method is useful in the detection of nephritic factor only and it is not a very direct test as it is carried out to determine the amount of C3.Complement-functional assay CH50Introduction complement functional assay are the basis for the diagnosis of complement deficiency disorders. They are divided into subcategories dependent upon their relation to another disease.Primary complement deficiencies are genetic based and secondary refer to those that are acquired. Functional assays play a pivotal role within the assessment of the classical, alternative and terminal pathway of complement activation.The most common haemolytic assay used within the laboratory setting is the CH50 assay as it is both the simplest and easiest to carry out. The functional integ rity of the classical complement pathway, C1, C2, C3, C4 is measured using CH50 along with total haemolytic complement. This is achieved by measuring the required measurement of serum in order to cause haemolysis of half the quantity that had been stabilised and sensitised red blood cells (Chapel et al..2006). Classical components become activated to lyses sheep erythrocytes that are coated in rabbit anti- sheep E antibodies (Rose.. 1997) Practical Schedule ply to microtiter well the sera to be tested along with a buffer in different concentrations. Then add the sheep erythrocytes. Cover and incubate at 37dgrees for 1 hour. Then centrifuge and carry out ELISA to detect results. (Rose et al., 2002)ResultsEvaluation- The method is generally sensitive and reliable providing the specimen is tested quickly and all reagents are unbroken on ice. (Chapel et al., 2006) The problem arises in availability as they are not widely available and as such functional assays for complement are limi ted to laboratories that have the equipment (Gaspan and Tyring 2008). As with many immunological techniques the fundamental threat to validity is improper sample collection, this can occur easily in the onsite environment where it can be left to stand for considerable periods of time at room temperature. (Rose, 1997)5. Microbial Antigens ELISAIntroductionBy coupling the antigen to an insoluble adsorbent it is possible to detect human antibodies to specific antigens using this technique. Elevated levels of antibody titre remains a reliable indication to the presence and measurement of an active infection within the diagnostic process. ELISAs provide highly sensitive and precise methods for the estimation of biological parameters, with the added advantage that they can handle large numbers of samples that may then be analysed rapidly and are useful in detection of a range of viruses and bacterial infections inclusive of TB and pneumonia and viral antigens. (Chapel et al..2006) Many t ypes of immunoassays can be used to detect and quantitative both antigens and antibodies, but there are differences in the avidity requirements for the antibodies, the signal strengths of the labels, and the amount of background for each of these types of assays. Antibody capture assays are the most appropriate for measuring the titre of the antisera you have generated.ELISAs by definition exploit the use of an enzyme attached to one of the reagent utilized in the test. Subsequent addition of the germane(predicate) enzyme substrates/ chromogens cause a colour change the results can be read both by eye and quantified using specially designed spectrophotometers. The fact that proteins (including antibodies) and carbohydrates can be passively attached to plastics has been exploited in most applications of ELISA. Since one of the components is attached to a solid phase by passive absorption, subsequent reagents can be added, and after a period of incubation, unreacted material can be simply washed away. Such assays are termed Heterogeneous ELISAs. The plastic surface is known as the solid phase and plastic in the form of 96-well microtiter plates has proved highly practical for the following reasons.A large number (96) of sample wells are available in a highly practical fromMultichannel pipets (4,8,12 channels) designed for use with such plates are available, making reagent handling rapid and simple Test volumes are small (e.g. 50uL, 100uL)Comparative readings of coloured products can be made by eye or by specially designed multichannel spectrophotometers (96 wells are read in 2-5s)The above facts afford the potential to rapidly handle numerous plates, and hence numerous samples may be examined, e.g., 20 plates/person= 1920 sample points/ person.Attachment of reagents also allows great versatility for ELISA since the various components of assays may be used in different combinations and in different phases to investigate their potential. It is difficult to inte rpolate about the potential performance of the various ELISA systems. There is a wide range of configurations available and probably no two scientific groups attempting to perform the same task by ELISA will use identical configurations.Practical ScheduleDissolve antigen in carbonate-bicarbonate buffer.Add 200 l to each well of a micro-ELISA plate cover and incubate overnight at 4 degrees.Wash so that unbound antigen is removed and fill with casein to block remaining binding sites.Incubate at room temperature for 1 hour.Add 200 l of test serum and incubate for 2 hours at room temperature in a humid chamber.Wash the plate three timesPrepare the peroxidase-antibody conjugate, mix 100microlitres of casein with 1 ml of serum, 100l Tween 20 with 50 l peroxidase-antibody and stir gently.Add 200l to each well and incubate at room temperature for an hour.Wash three times.Prepare the substrate solution and add200 l substrate to each well. Leave in the dark and allow colour to develop.Stop th e reaction by adding 50 l of sodium fluoride to each of the wells.An ELISA reader can then be used to quantify the colour reaction.General Method from Hay et al., 2002.ResultsA positive result would be characterised by the reaction that causes colour showing the presence of antibodies to the specific type of bacteria highlighted by a dark band.EvaluationOn the whole this method remains largely specific and rapid. The major cause of problem is the scientist(s) involved. The main problem is the lack of close- contact training in the fundamentals of ELISA, so that the scientist has the experience to identify and then solve the problems in the use of reagents. The results yielded cannot have the biological implications assessed without general knowledge of several field of science, e.g., epidemiology, immunochemistry, biochemistry and immunology. This however should not be considered too problematic as the ELISA should be a tool for the investigation of specific problems rather than an end in itself. Whilst it in comparison to immunoflourence in the detection of TB and flow cytomentry it may lack sensitivity, it does remain the cheapest and easiest to carry out. (Rose et al..1997)6. Autoantibodies It is becoming increasingly evident that the presence of tissue auto antibodies is not in itself pathognomic of disease. Improvements in the technique in the last few years have led to increased sensitivity and detection of weak antibodies in sera which would hitherto have been reported negative. As a large series of patients are tested in an increasing number of laboratories previously held views on the specific clinical friendship of particular antibodies are being revised and reference to early literature may therefore be misleading.Since antigens and antibodies are defined by their mutual interactions, they can be used to quantify each other. At a practical level in a diagnostic laboratory, the functional tests are labour intensive and therefore expensive, and a com promise is usually sought by using immunochemical assays which measure composite of medium to high affinity antibodies and their abundance. The antibody has become the scientists limber friend For example, antibodies raised against hormones, serum proteins, cell constituents, cytokines, or even immunoglobulins themselves, allow these parameters to be measured in immunoassays. Immunoassays form the backbone of tests used in the matter

Different lan Technologies

Different lan Technologies1. AIMTo learn about different lan technologies and to design a network based on these lan technologies and to model these networks by a simulation tool know as opnet and by set different loads on these networks and to study the performance of these networks.2. OverviewLocal range networks (LAN) atomic number 18 a group of devices which communicate with each other in a small geo representical area identical within a board or within a building. There are different topologies in LAN which are designed according to usage, cost, amount of traffic flow. The different topologies are star topology, bus topology (Ethernet), ring topology, FDDI.The main aim of this project is to design network and compare different lan topologies and to simulate these networks by putting different network loads and to analyse how these networks behave to the different traffic loads and by running the simulation for a long time. Analyse the results and wherefore to decide which topology is the topper.This project has been suggested by Dr Diane Gan.This project meets the guidelines of the Masters project and the requirements of the programme that i am studying and as i will be able to design an network and simulate it using opnet and to vary the traffic load and to analyse the result of the simulation and to decide which network topology is the best and efficient.After completion of the project i would be in a situation to tell about different parameters of the network like delays, packet secrete arrival time, link utilisation, packet loss.3. ObjectivesLiterature review of different LAN topologiesTo design different LAN topologiesSimulate different LAN topologies by varying the traffic loads say about 20%, 40%,70%,80%Analyse the quality of service (QOS) when an particular load is applied.To compare and analyse the results based on these simulationsTo decide which topology would be the best, looking at the results of the simulations and to suggest which to pology would be better.How the objectives will be achievedResearch on different networking books and different publications like IEEE, ACM etc.To learn to use opnet.Using opnet to design different LAN networks.To simulate these networks with different traffic loads like database traffic, ftp traffic, email traffic, clear surfing, voip, video streaming, printing.To collect and put the result of these simulations on spreadsheet and to analyze the results.To check the results like loads at servers, packets loss, packets delivery time, utilization of the links.To plot the results on graphTo decide which network topology is the best based on the results.4. ResourcesTo complete this project i would requireOpnet ModelerA computer with high constellation so that i could store the network models and the simulations.6. Initial ReferencesComputer networks- Andrew S. Tanenbaum Pearson education international, 2003Network simulations with OPNET by Xinjie Chang, Winter Simulation Conference, Pr oceedings of the 31st conference on Winter simulation Simulationa bridge to the future, Phoenix, Arizona, United States 1999

Business Essays Company Strategy Business

Business Essays Company dodging BusinessCompany Strategy BusinessYour lodge has a go on aim and a solid dodge you thrust the right people in the right places you have great ideas and the resources to execute them. So does your competition.Over the past decades, the voice of economic organizations in society has been set abouted from various perspectives and alternative sentimentualizations of art have been introduced (Grant, 2005 Skurnik, 2005). The traditional idea of business is that an efficient organization is formed to produce receipts (Ansoff, 1965 Drucker, 1958). Lately, the concept of business, including the objectives and strategies of business companies, has been dominated by the idea of profit maximation for investor owners (Grant, 2005).strategic concern researchers have been prop whiznts of the theory that provide rear to the relationship between the environment, firm schema, structure, and performance. Several focus researchers of the likes of Dill (1958 ), Chandler (1962), Lawrence Lorsch (1967), Jurkovich (1974), Miles Snow (1978), Porter (1980, 1985), Bourgeois (1980, 1981), Hambrick (1981, 1983), Dess Davis (1984), Dess and Beard (1984), Mintzberg (1988), Miller (1986), Hamel Prahalad (1991), Kotha Valdamani (1995), and opposites have directly or indirectly made attempts to presuppose the effects of single or multiple constructs, visvis the firm environment, dodge, and structure on firm performance. These efforts have led to the incremental development of the strategicalal management writings that stress on the relationships between the constructs mentioned above.The takes of strategy, i.e. incorporated direct, business level, and usable level have been defined by management theorists in order to identify and carry the differences in show up in managing firms across these levels of company pecking order. Corporate level strategies focus on what businesses should the company invest in, in order to satisfy the int erests of the stakeholders and to maximize the value of stockholders investments. The focus here is on issues pertaining to firm growth and liquidity (e.g. Kim, Mauer, Sherman, 1998), which influence stockholders satisfaction.On the separate hand, business level strategies mean behaviors in which a company would hear to attain competitive advantage through effective aligning. It should be noned that these positioning strategies of companies would vary depending on the exertion set (Hill Jones, 1995). In corporate finance, although business level strategies ar not defined as positioning strategies, the objectives of these strategies and their effects ar considered within the diversification and liquidity concepts of corporate strategies. The objective of functional level strategies is to pass on competitive advantage through strategies directed at improving the effectiveness of functional operations within a company (Hill Jones, 1995 p. 12).Note that in corporate financ e the functional level strategies ar considered as aggregates reported as part of the financial statements of individual business units, which are then analyzed in connection to the corporate strategies. It should likewise be noted that the business and functional strategies are impacted by the way in which corporate strategies are formulated.Although it may be argued that a bottom-up approach of defining functional level and business level strategies will not entail the effects of corporate strategies on functional and business level strategies, in reality firms define their resource allocation strategies first by taking into consideration the effects of these strategies on overall corporate performance. Once the resource allocation decisions are formulated at the corporate level, managers at the business level give the gate then identify the appropriate strategies to meet the objectives laid out by managers at the corporate level.Management theorists have suggested that in ord er to achieve competitive advantage, the firm should achieve a fit between the environment, strategy, structure and find outs (Jennings Lumpkin, 1992). Effective strategy formulation and implementation lead to the attainment of performance objectives determine by the stakeholders of the firm.Whereas the concept of fit between the environment and strategy is important in order to achieve competitive winner, Hamel Prahalad (1991) suggested that strategic intent is the key to achieving success as compared to strategic fit, the paradigm that most management theorists followed until the late eighties. The authors suggest that strategic intent is about building new resources and competencies to tap future opportunities as opposed to the strategic fit perspective of achieving a fit between existing company resources and current environment opportunities.Hierarchical aims of StrategyCorporate Level StrategyThe corporate level strategy entails decisions made by corporate managers to ins ure that company stakeholders are satisfied at all ms. With this as the goal, the managers at the corporate level of company hierarchy decide to invest in business(es) that result in long-term profit maximization and increased returns to the firms stockholders. Corporate strategies entail two distinct dimensions that include measures pertaining to growth (Zook Rogers, 2001) and liquidity (Kim et al., 1998). Corporate managers decide what businesses to invest in and how liquid the assets of the firm should be to maximize the value of the firm, both(prenominal) in the short and long term scenario.Business Level StrategyBusiness level strategy applies to the unit level of the organization and is referred to as those strategies that are applied at the strategic business unit (SBU) level. SBU level strategy is formulated and implemented by business level managers, who are also referred to as unit level managers or general managers. While this may be the case in the manufacturing indus tries, the hospitality industry general manager does not unavoidably formulate these strategies, rather they are instrumental in the implementation of the strategy.The formulation of business level strategies is entailed in the corporate strategy when the corporate managers define the positioning of the firm. Since business level strategy is a result of market segmentation and positioning strategies, the generic strategies of cost leadership, differentiation, and focus (Porter, 1980) result from the way corporate managers apprehend the orientation and positioning of the product during the time of its inception. This logic also applies to the Miles Snows typology of prospector, defender, analyzer, and reactor. These generic typologies are a result of the corporate level managers positioning strategies, and the budget allocated to the units to plight that strategy.In this regard, the hospitality industry is different from the manufacturing industry in terms of the distinction betw een the three levels of strategy. There is an overlap in the decisions made at the three levels, with the corporate level influencing the decisions of the unit level and the functional level. This may not be apparent by scrutinizing the organizational structure rather, this results from the job responsibilities that are entrusted to the different levels of management hierarchy, especially the business and functional level.Functional Level StrategyFunctional level strategies are those strategies that are initiated by the profit /support centres of an organization. These centres are individual functions that result when activities that are similar in their characteristics and objectives are grouped under a given function. Each separate function should have its own goal and objective, and functional managers formulate strategies to attain those goals and objectives.To be competitively sterling(prenominal) to other firms, functional level managers strategize to attain superior efficie ncy, superior quality, superior customer responsiveness, and superior innovation (Hill Jones, 1995). Although hospitality researchers have posited that manufacturing based strategy theory may not be applicable to the hospitality industry (Murthy, 1994), it can be argued that strategies professed by management theorists have been generalized to apply to any given industry.Strategy has been defined very distinctly in strategic management theory. For instance, according to Chandler (1962), strategy is the determination of basic long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals. Hofer Shendel (1978) defined strategy as the match among organizational purposes, resources, skills, environment opportunities and risks. Similarly, Thompson Strickland (1981) defined strategy as the manner in which an organization accomplishes its objectives through the formulation of agency, matchin g and allocating resources, and directing its effort to produce results.On the other hand, Bourgeois (1978) defined strategy in terms of a firms relationship with the environment to achieve its objectives, while Mintzberg (1981) defined the term as a embodiment in a stream of decisions or actions. These definitions are important for the literature as it defines the domain of strategy in terms of its literal meaning as well as the direction of research efforts that it influences. Although the above definitions of strategy may differ in literal meaning, the underlying theme common to all is the exponent of the organization to meet its objectives by directing its efforts in a resourceful manner, aligning them to the developments in the external environment.Having identified this theme in the definition of strategy, it becomes inwrought to identify whether each individual research domain within the field is a proponent of this ideology professed by eminent researchers. To do so, it i s essential to corpuscle the orientations of the sub-domains in the field of strategy.Strategy, in general, refers to how a given objective will be achieved. Consequently, strategy in general is have-to doe with with the relationships between ends and means, that is, between the results we seek and the resources at our disposal.Strategy and tactics are both concerned with formulating and then carrying out courses of action intended to attain particular objectives. For the most part, strategy is concerned with deploying the resources at your disposal whereas tactics is concerned with employing them. Together, strategy and tactics bridge the gap between ends and means .Strategy of an organization is the roadmap towards attainment of its long term goals and objectives.organisational strategy consists of planning, organizing, execution, and control activities. Strategic management process facilitates in the operationalization of strategy. Strategic thinking has been much influenced by military thinking about the strategy hierarchy of goals, policies and programmes. Strategy itself sets the docket for future action, strategic goals state what is to be achieved and when (but not how), policies set the guide limns and limits for permissible action in pursuit of the strategic goals, and programmes specify the in small stages sequence of actions necessary to achieve major objectives and the timetable against which progress can be measured.A well defined strategy integrates an organizations major plans, objectives, policies and programmes and commitments into a cohesive whole. It marshal and allocates limited resources in the vanquish way, which is defined by an analysis of a firms unique strengths and weaknesses and of opportunities and threats in the environment. It considers how to deal with the potential actions of intelligent opponents.The importance of strategic management for the development of personas is growing, together with the effort of the regional re presentatives to increase the performance and competitive advantage of their regions. Individual countries, regions, cities, and towns compete among each other especially in the erudition of economic subjects, which create and stabilize new jobs, thereby influencing prosperity and the standard of living of their residents.Strategy choice is a component of strategy formulation that entails identifying the strategic alternatives in tandem with the firms strengths and weaknesses. Since strategy is about identifying the appropriate courses of action, these alternatives vary depending on the hierarchical levels of the organization confirmed by, for instance, Hofer Shendel (1979), who plosive consonant out that strategy content varies with the level of organizational hierarchy. The hierarchical levels identified by various management theorists in the strategy domain are functional level, business level, and corporate level strategies (Hill Jones, 1995) .The strategic management model suggests that intended strategy is an outcome of certain distinct actions taken by firms. These actions can be categorized as the product of a firms external analysis and internal analysis (Hill Jones, 1995). The external analysis is about understanding the firms external environment to identify opportunities and threats. This analysis includes analyzing the firms remote environment domain, labour environment domain, and industry environment domain in order to identify the forces driving change and their impact on the organization during a given time period (Olsen et al., 1998).On the other hand, the internal analysis entails pinpointing what the strengths and weaknesses of the firm are in order to identify the quantity and quality of resources easy to the organization (Hill Jones, 1995). The concept that entails analyzing the firms external and internal environment and subsequently identifying the appropriate strategy comes under the strategy formulation sub-domain of strategy research. On the other hand, the sub-domain that deals with designing organizational systems and structures in order to put the strategy into action is termed as strategy implementation.There are three levels of strategies in the organization viz. corporate strategy, business strategy, and functional strategy. The term strategy proliferates in discussions of business. Scholars and consultants have provided myriad models and frameworks for analysing strategic choice (Hambrick and Fredrickson, 2001). For us, the key issue that should unite all discussion of strategy is a clear sand of an organizations objectives and a comprehend of how it will achieve these objectives.It is also important that the organization has a clear sense of its distinctiveness. For the leading strategy guru, Michael Porter (1996), strategy is about achieving competitive advantage through being different delivering a unique value added to the customer, having a clear and enactable view of how to position your self uniquely in your industry, for example, in the ways in which Southwest Airlines positions itself in the airline industry and IKEA in furniture retailing, in the way that Marks Spencer used to.To enact a triple-crown strategy requires that there is fit among a companys activities, that they complement each other, and that they deliver value to the firm and its customers. The three companies we have just mentioned illustrate that industries are fluid and that success is not guaranteed. Two of the firms came to prominence by taking on industry incumbents and evolution new value propositions. The third was extremely successful and lost this position. While there is much debate on substance, there is agreement that strategy is concerned with the match between a companys capabilities and its external environment.Analysts disagree on how this may be done. John Kay (2000) argues that strategy is no longer about planning or visioning because we are deluded if we think we can predic t or, worse, control the future it is about using careful analysis to understand and influence a companys position in the market place. Another leading strategy guru, Gary Hamel (2000), argues that the best strategy is geared towards radical change and creating a new vision of the future in which you are a leader rather than a companion of trends set by others.The idea of strategy has received increasing attention in the management literature. The literature on strategy is now voluminous and strategic management texts grow ever larger to include all the relevant material. Our premise is that a firm needs a well defined sense of its armorial bearing, its unique place in its environment and background knowledge and direction of growth. Such a sense of mission defines the firms strategy.A firm also needs an approach to management itself that will harness the internal energies of the organization to the realization of its mission. Historically, views of strategy fall into two camps. There are those who equate strategy with planning. According to this perspective, information is gathered, sifted and analysed, forecasts are made, senior managers reflect upon the work of the planning department and decide what is the best course for the organization. This is a top-down approach to strategy. Others have a less(prenominal) structured view of strategy as being more about the process of management.According to this second perspective, the key strategic issue is to put in place a system of management that will facilitate the capability of the organization to respond to an environment that is essentially unknowable, unpredictable and, therefore, not amenable to a planning approach. We will consider both these views in this text. Our own view is that good strategic management actually encompasses elements of each perspective.Corporate strategy defines the markets and the businesses in which a company will operate. Competitive or business strategy defines for a given bus iness the basis on which it will compete. Corporate strategy is typically decided in the context of defining the companys mission and vision, that is, saying what the company does, why it exists, and what it is intended to become. Competitive strategy hinges on a companys capabilities, strengths, and weaknesses in relation to market characteristics and the corresponding capabilities, strengths, and weaknesses of its competitors. According to Michael Porter, a Harvard Business School professor and the reigning guru of competitive strategy, competition within an industry is driven by five basic factorsThreat of new entrants.Threat of substitute products or services.Bargaining power of suppliers.Bargaining power of buyers.Rivalry among existing firms.Porter also indicates that, in response to these five factors, competitive strategy can take one of three generic forms (1) focus, (2) differentiation, and (3) cost leadership.Business strategy focuses on how a company competes in a select ed industry over markets. The core of the business strategy can be captured in to a question How should we compete? (Grant, 2005 22-23). therefore, business strategy is closely related to the concept of competitive strategy (Porter, 1987), which is about creating competitive advantage in a chosen industry. Competitive strategy means choosing a different set of activities to deliver a unique mix of value (Porter, 1996, 1987).Corporate strategy defines the breadth of the company in relation to an industry and markets, where it competes it dissolvers the question What business should we be in? (Grant, 2005 22-23). According to Porter (1996), deciding which target group of customers, varieties, and needs the company should serve is fundamental in developing a strategy.Strategy can be neither formulated nor adjusted to changing circumstances without a process of strategy evaluation. Whether performed by an individual or as part of an organizational review procedure, strategy evaluation forms an essential step in the process of guiding an enterprise. For many executives strategy evaluation is barely an appraisal of how well a business performs.Has it grown? Is the profit rate normal? If the answers to these questions are affirmative, it is argued that the firms strategy mustiness be sound. Despite its unassailable simplicity, this line of reasoning misses the whole point of strategy that the critical factors determining the quality of current results are often not directly observable or just measured, and that by the time strategic opportunities or threats do directly affect operating results it may well be too late for an effective response. Thus strategy evaluation is an attempt to look beyond the obvious facts regarding the short-term health of a business and appraise instead those more fundamental factors and trends that grade success in the chosen field of endeavour.Strategic thinking has been much influenced by military thinking about the strategy hiera rchy of goals, policies and programmes. Strategy itself sets the agenda for future action, strategic goals state what is to be achieved and when (but not how), policies set the guidelines and limits for permissible action in pursuit of the strategic goals, and programmes specify the step-by-step sequence of actions necessary to achieve major objectives and the timetable against which progress can be measured.A well defined strategy integrates an organizations major plans, objectives, policies and programmes and commitments into a cohesive whole. It marshals and allocates limited resources in the best way, which is defined by an analysis of a firms unique strengths and weaknesses and of opportunities and threats in the environment. It considers how to deal with the potential actions of intelligent opponents.A firm competes with a large tot up of other firms in the business environment. The firm has a two-fold objective. It has to attain its long-term goals in the most efficient mann er. At the uniform time, the firm has to deliver higher(prenominal) value to its customer as compared to other competing firms to gain a sustainable competitive advantage. The roadmap consisting of a comprehensive plan towards achievement of the aforesaid objectives is known as organizational strategy. Strategy, in general, refers to how a given objective will be achieved.Consequently, strategy in general is concerned with the relationships between ends and means, that is, between the results we seek and the resources at our disposal. Strategy and tactics are both concerned with formulating and then carrying out courses of action intended to attain particular objectives. For the most part, strategy is concerned with deploying the resources at your disposal whereas tactics is concerned with employing them. Corporate individuation merges strategy, culture, and communications to present a memorable personality to prospects and customers.The term is closely linked to corporate philoso phy, the company s business mission and values, as well as corporate personality, the distinct corporate culture reflecting this philosophy, and corporate image. The main objective of corporate identity is to achieve a favourable image among the company s prospects and customers. When a corporation is favourably regarded this is likely to result in loyalty. If the corporate identity is the self-portrayal of a company, then the corporate image is the apprehension of an organization by the audience. The closer the corporate image is to the corporate identity the closer the public s perception of a company is to how the company defines itself, making for superior corporate communication.For example, most companies have access to the same technology. If they want to further distinguish themselves, the strategy must rely on another factor than technology the user experience. As the audience s focus changes constantly, corporate strategies must move in the same direction as the customer. Products are the most important spokespersons for any brand or company. Therefore, the key to defining your corporate identity resides in how well a company communicates its visions and values by means of the identity and image of its products, always keeping the target audience involvement in mind.There is no one best way of strategy. The planning approach can work in a stable, predictable environment. Its critics argue that such environments are becoming increasingly scarce, events put on the plan redundant, creativity is buried beneath the weight and protocols of planning and communication rules. Furthermore, those not involved in devising the plan are never commit to its implementation. The second approach emphasizes speed of reaction andflexibility to enable the organization to function best in an environment that is fast-changing and essentially unpredictable. The essence of strategy, according to this view, is adaptability and incrementalism. This approach has been critici zed for failing to give an adequate sense of where the organization is going and what its mission is. Critics speak disparagingly of the mushroom approach to management. (Place in a dark room, shovel manure/money on the seeds, close the door, wait for it to grow)Inconsistency in strategy is not simply a flaw in logic. A key function of strategy is to provide coherence to organizational action. A clear and explicit concept of strategy can foster a climate of tacit co-ordination that is more efficient than most administrative mechanisms. Many high technology firms, for example, face a basic strategic choice between whirl high-cost products with high custom- takeing content and lower-cost products that are more standardized and sold at higher volume.If senior management does not enunciate a clear, consistent sense of where the corporation stands on these issues, there will be continuing conflict between sales, design, engineering and manufacturing people. A clear, consistent strateg y, by contrast, allows a sales engineer to negotiate a contract with a minimum of coordination the trade-offs are an explicit part of the firms posture.Rumelt (1988).A strategy is a set of objectives, policies and plans that, taken together, define the scope of the enterprise and its approach to business. Rumelt suggests that three questions are central to the take exception of strategy evaluationAre the objectives of the business appropriate?Are the major policies and plans appropriate?Do the results obtained to date confirm or refute critical assumptions on whichThe strategy rests?He further suggests that strategy must satisfy four broad criteriaConsistency. The strategy must not present mutually inconsistent goals and policies.Consonance. The strategy must represent an adaptive response to the external environment and to the critical changes occurring within it.Advantage. Strategy must provide for the creation and/or maintenance of a competitive advantage in the selected area of activity.Feasibility. The strategy must neither overtax available resources nor create insoluble problems.Strategic management represents the collection of methods and approaches that are applicable to the regulation of regional development. This process can include the followingDefining the mission of the development of the region it depends on visions, values and expectations of the key implementing entities.Setting the strategic and performance objectives the objectives might comprise e.g. social development of regions, development of infrastructure, improvement of environmental aspects of the life of the local population, better territorial distribution of economic activities in the region etc.Formulating strategy (determining strategic alternatives, their evaluation assessment and selection) we seek to answer the question of how to meet the future objectives. Also essential is to use the results of both the external and internal environment analyses (situation analysis)Int roducing and implementing the selected strategy (strategy implementation) this component is related to the further purification of regional development strategies into more detailed programs, measures and activities. The success of the strategy implementation depends to a certain degree on the motivation of all the stakeholders and apart from other things it is also associated with the level of culture in the communityEvaluating results and proposing corrective measures (strategic control) it serves to ascertain the success rate of the selected strategy and also signals the necessary changes at whichever stage of its implementation. primary requirement of this process is to increase competitive advantage of the regions in the long run. We can define the regional competitive advantage as the ability of the region to produce products and services, which will be able to compete on the international market, while securing and maintaining the incomes of its inhabitants.Managing risk a t the organizational level is considered to be the key to the longterm natural selection of firms. According to Busman Van Zuiden (1998) there is a growing recognition that coordinating and financing all facets of organizational risk effectively is critical to increase success, whether that success is measured by shareholder value or, in the case of not-for-profit, educational or governmental institutions, by the range and quality of provided services (p. 14).Furthermore, the authors point out that because of the speed at which the organizations external business environment is constantly changing, managers are required to keep pace with this change through effective monitor of the developments that increase the risk exposure of firms.BibliographyBourgeois, L. J. (1980) Strategy and environment A conceptual integration. Academy of Management Review, 5, 25-39.Bourgeois, L. J. (1981). On the measurement of organizational slack. Academy of Management Review, 6, 29-39.Busman, E. R., Zuiden, P. V. (1998). The challenge ahead Adopting an enterprise wide approach to risk. 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